Functionalized foams

ABSTRACT

A method of fabricating an foam includes providing a foam comprising a base material. The base material is coated with an inorganic material using at least one of an atomic layer deposition (ALD), a molecular layer deposition (MLD), or sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS) process. The SIS process includes at least one cycle of exposing the foam to a first metal precursor for a first predetermined time and a first partial pressure. The first metal precursor infiltrates at least a portion of the base material and binds with the base material. The foam is exposed to a second co-reactant precursor for a second predetermined time and a second partial pressure. The second co-reactant precursor reacts with the first metal precursor, thereby forming the inorganic material on the base material. The inorganic material infiltrating at least the portion of the base material. The inorganic material is functionalized with a material.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/360,089 filed Jul. 8, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

The United States Government claims certain rights in this disclosure pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago and/or pursuant to DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to foam materials and methods of forming the same.

BACKGROUND

Oil spills are a major environmental hazard. Particularly, oil spills in water bodies cause billions of dollars in losses, which includes cost of lost oil, environmental remediation after oil spills, losses to businesses in coastal areas and legal costs to name a few. For example, it is estimated that the 1979 Ixtoc 1 oil spill cost about $1.3 Billion, the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill cost about $6.3 Billion, and the most recent Deepwater Horizon oil spill cost over $47 Billion. Effective remediation has the potential to dramatically reduce these costs. Various technologies are used for recovering surface oil spills, that is, oil floating on the surface of a water body. These include for example skimming, which is a slow and tedious process, burning, which has significant environmental consequences itself, and dispersing using chemical dispersants, which can be toxic to aquatic life and does not directly eliminate the oil but rather causes it to submerge as droplets.

Beyond oil on the water surface, a significant portion of the spilled oil can be submerged below the surface of the water body. This can be due to a sub-surface oil source as is often the case in oil spills emanating from offshore rigging accidents. This can also occur following treatment with dispersants or simply as a result of oil components with density greater than that of the water in which the spill occurs. There does not exist a reliable technology for removing and recovering submerged oil, particularly submerged oil from water columns of fast moving water located in riverine or near shore environments in depths of up to two hundred feet.

SUMMARY

Embodiments described herein relate generally to foams and methods for forming such foams and, in particular to forming foams using atomic layer deposition (ALD), molecular layer deposition (MLD), and/or sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS) processes.

In some embodiments, a method of fabricating an foam includes providing a foam comprising a base material. The base material is coated with an inorganic material using at least one of an ALD, MLD or an SIS process. The at least one of the ALD, MLD or the SIS process includes at least one cycle of exposing the foam to a first metal precursor for a first predetermined time and a first partial pressure. The first metal precursor deposits onto or infiltrates into at least a portion of the base material and binds with the base material. The foam is exposed to a second co-reactant precursor for a second predetermined time and a second partial pressure. The second co-reactant precursor reacts with the first metal precursor, thereby forming the inorganic material on the base material. The inorganic material grows on or infiltrates at least a portion of the base material. The inorganic material is functionalized with a material having a desired affinity.

In some embodiments, a foam includes a base material. An inorganic material is coated on the base material such that the inorganic material is deposited on or infiltrates at least a portion of the base material. A material is coupled to the inorganic material.

It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing concepts and additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided such concepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. In particular, all combinations of claimed subject matter appearing at the end of this disclosure are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The foregoing and other features of the present disclosure will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Understanding that these drawings depict only several implementations in accordance with the disclosure and are therefore, not to be considered limiting of its scope, the disclosure will be described with additional specificity and detail through use of the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic flow diagram of a method for fabricating an oleophilic foam, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 2 is a schematic flow diagram of another embodiment of a method for removing submerged oil from an oil spill using an oleophilic foam.

FIG. 3A is an image of a portion of a block of an oleophilic foam; FIG. 3B is an enlarged schematic view of a portion of the block of oleophilic foam of FIG. 3A showing a plurality of strands of the oleophilic foam included therein; FIG. 3C is an enlarged cross-section schematic view of the a single strand of the plurality of strands of the oleophilic foam of FIG. 3B.

FIG. 4 shows one embodiment of an apparatus for removing oil from oil spills submerged in water bodies using a net to which the oleophilic foam of FIG. 3 is attached.

FIG. 5A-C is an image of a beaker containing water with dyed oil floating thereon; FIG. 5B is an image of the beaker of water of FIG. 5A after immersing an oleophilic foam therein which absorbs all the oil within 5 seconds; and FIG. 5C is an image of the beaker of FIG. 5A after all the oil has been absorbed by the oleophilic foam.

FIG. 6 is a bar chart illustrating the oil absorbing capability of various oleophilic foams relative to an untreated foam.

FIG. 7 illustrates a transportation system utilized with the functionalized foam described herein.

Reference is made to the accompanying drawings throughout the following detailed description. In the drawings, similar symbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative implementations described in the detailed description, drawings, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Other implementations may be utilized, and other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presented here. It will be readily understood that the aspects of the present disclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated in the figures, can be arranged, substituted, combined, and designed in a wide variety of different configurations, all of which are explicitly contemplated and made part of this disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS

Embodiments described herein relate generally to foams and methods for forming such foams and, in particular to forming foams using an atomic layer deposition (ALD), molecular layer deposition (MLD) and/or sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS) process. The foams are tailored to have a desired affinity, such as for oil, hydrocarbons, organics, groundwater contaminants, biofuel production materials, and constituents of cosmetic or body excretions. In one embodiment, foams refer to solid, open-cell foams, such as those colloquially referenced as “sponge-like” foams.

Oil spills are a major environmental hazard and result in losses of billions of dollars. Particularly there is a dearth of technologies for removing and recovering oil from surface and submerged oil spills. Some materials such as silica aerogels, organoclays, zeolites and carbonaceous materials are sometime used to remove surface and submerged oil. However, these materials have numerous drawbacks. For example, these materials have low absorption capacity, are not reusable, are expensive, have poor mechanical stability and the removed oil cannot easily be recovered.

In contrast, embodiments of an oleophilic foam described herein and method of forming the same may provide benefits, for example: (1) having high oleophilicity; (2) providing high oil uptake rate and capacity; (3) using non-toxic materials for the foam such that there is no health hazard for persons deploying the oleophilic foam or native marine life; (4) high stability allowing use in fresh or sea water at various temperatures; (5) using cheap readily available commercial foams to form the oleophilic foam, thereby having low cost; (6) capability of absorbing oil droplets or dissolved oil from surface or submerged oil spills; (7) allowing recovery of collected oil by simply squeezing the foam; (8) reusing the foam once the collected oil is removed, and (9) having a high selectivity for the adsorption of oil rather than water.

FIG. 1 is a schematic flow diagram of a method 100 for forming an oleophilic foam according to an embodiment. The oleophilic foam formed using the method 100 can be used for collecting and recovering oil from oil spills, for example surface oil spills or submerged oil spills.

The method 100 includes providing a foam comprising a base material at 102. The base material can include any suitable material such as, for example polyurethane, polyimides, acrylics, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polyaramides, or any other suitable base material which can be used to form the foam. In some embodiments, the base material is formed from a polymer which includes one or more carbonyl moieties within some or all of the monomers of the polymer. In particular embodiments, the base material includes polyurethane.

The foam may form a sorbent. In some embodiments, the foam can include a plurality of strands of the base material, as coated, then intermingled, interwoven or otherwise shaped so as to form the foam, for example a foam block, a foam net, a foam pad, strands, strips, a sock or oven mitt shape where the foam tapers to form an enclosure on four or five sides, a rope (braided or loose, bundled strands) or chain, or any other suitable structure, including through the use of a support structure such as a net or matrix. In one embodiment, the foam is a loose collection of material, such as shredded portions of the above listed forms. The foam may be disposed within a rigid, semi-rigid, or pliable housing such as a box or sack, preferably with pore, slates, or the like as openings into the housing to expose the foam to the environment. The base material may be shaped as described above and then the deposition by ALD, MLD or SIS occur or the deposition may occur and the resultant foam shaped.

The base material is coated with an inorganic material using an ALD, a MLD, and/or a sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS) process at 104. The ALD, MLD, and/or SIS process may include exposing the base material to a first metal precursor for a first predetermined time and a first partial pressure of the first metal precursor so that the metal precursor deposits on, coats or infiltrates at least a portion of the base material (e.g., infiltrates beneath the surface of each of the plurality of strands 310 forming the base material shown in FIG. 3) and binds with the base material. The first predetermined time can be in the range of 1 second to 500 seconds (e.g., 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 350, 400, 450 or 500 seconds inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween). In some embodiments, the first predetermined time is in the range of 1 and 10 seconds, for example about 5 seconds. The first partial pressure of the first metal precursor can be in the range of 0.01 Torr to 10 Torr. (e.g., 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 10 Torr inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween). In some embodiments, the first partial pressure of the first metal precursor is in the range of 0.1 Torr and 1 Torr, for example about 0.5 Torr.

In some embodiments, the base material can be heated to a predetermined temperature during the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS process. For example, the first predetermined temperature can be in the range of 50-200 degrees Celsius (e.g., 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190 or 200 degrees Celsius inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween). In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature is in the range of 70-90 degrees Celsius, for example 85 degrees Celsius. In some embodiments, the first predetermined temperature can be in the range of 120-140 degrees Celsius, for example 135 degrees Celsius.

In some embodiments, the first metal precursor includes Trimethyl Aluminum (TMA), Triethyl Aluminum (TEA), Yttrium Tris(2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-3,5-Heptanedionate) (Y(thd)3), Diethyl Zinc (DEZ), Titanium tetrachloride (TiC14), Vanadium (V) Oxytriisopropoxide (VOTP), Palladium (II) hexafluoroacetylacetonate, (Pd(hfac)2), copper bis(2,2,6,6-tetramethy 1-3, 5-heptanedionate) (Cu(thd)2), copper(II) hexafluoroacetylacetonate hydrate (Cu(hfac)2), iron tris(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionate) (Fe(thd)3), cobalt tris(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionate) (Co(thd)3), Bis(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionato)barium triglyme adduct (Ba(thd)2.tri), Bis(cyclopentadienyl) ruthenium (Ru(cp)2), disilane (Si2H6), Tungsten Hexafluoride (WF6), Bis(N,N′diisopropylacetamidinato)copper(I) (Cu(DIA)), Nickel (II) acetylacetonate (Ni(acac)2), antimony pentachloride (SbCl5), niobium pentachloride (NbCl5), niobium pentethoxide (Nb(OEt)5), titanium isopropoxide (Ti(iOPr)4), tris(tetramethylcyclopentadienyl) cerium (III), cyclopentadienyl indium (InCp), tris(i-propylcyclopentadienyl) lanthanum (La (iPrCp)3), bis(cyclopentadienyl) magnesium (Mg(Cp)2), bis (cyclopentadienyl) nickel (NiCp2), (trimethyl)methylcyclopentadienylplatinum (IV) (Pt(MeCp)Me3), bis (pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) strontium (Sr(Me5Cp)2), tris (cyclopentadienyl) yttrium (YCp3), bis(cyclopentadienyl) dimethylzirconium (ZrCp2Me2), bis(methylcyclopentadienyl) methoxymethyl zirconium (ZrOMe), tetrakis(dimethylamino) tin (TDMASn), tetrakis(dimethylamino) zirconium (TDMAZr), tris(dimethylamino) aluminum (TDMAAI), iridium(III) acetylacetonate (Ir(acac)3), niobium pentafluoride (NbF5), ferrocene (FeCp2), cyclohexadiene iron tricarbonyl (FeHD(CO)3), tetrakis(dimethylamino) antimony (TDMASb), aluminum trichloride (A1Cl3), niobium (V) iodide (NbI5), tin (IV) iodide (SnI4), Tris(tetramethylcyclopentadienyl) gadolinium(III) (Gd(Me4Cp)3), Bis(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) barium 1,2-dimethoxyethane adduct (Ba (Me5Cp)-2-DMA), Molybdenum Hexafluoride (MoF6), Tris (tert-pentoxy)silanol (TTPSi), Silicon tetrachloride (SiC14), lithium tert-butoxide (Li(tOBu)), trimethyl indium (TMin),trimethyl gallium (TMGa), and dimethyl cadmium (TMCd), or any combination thereof.

The base material plsu first co-reactant is then exposed to a second co-reactant precursor for a second predetermined time and a second partial pressure of the second co-reactant such that the second co-reactant precursor reacts with the first metal precursor to form the inorganic material on or within the base material. In some embodiments, the second co-reactant precursor includes water, hydrogen peroxide, nitrous oxide, oxygen, ozone, hydrogen, formaldehyde, trimethyl aluminum, ammonia, hydrazine, dimethyl hydrazine, diethyl hydrazine, methyl-ethyl hydrazine, hydrogen sulfide, trimethyl phosphite, trimethyl phosphate, silane, disilane, or any combination thereof. For example, the first metal precursor can be trimethyl aluminum and the second co-reactant can be water. The second predetermined time can be in the range of 1 to 500 seconds (e.g., 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 350, 400, 450 or 500 seconds inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween). In some embodiments, the second predetermined time is in the range of 1 and 10 seconds, for example about 5 seconds. The second partial pressure of the second co-reactant can be in the range of 0.01 Torr to 10 Torr. (e.g., 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 10 Torr inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween). In some embodiments, the partial pressure of the second co-reactant is in the range of 0.1 Torr and 1 Torr, for example about 0.5 Torr.

Any number of cycles of exposing the foam to the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor can be performed to reach a desired thickness of the inorganic material film, or depth within the polymer strand (e.g., the polymer strand of the base material 312) that the inorganic material has infiltrated. In some embodiments, the number of cycles of the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS process can be in the range of 1-50, for example 1 cycle, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 or 50 cycles inclusive of all ranges and values therebetween. In some embodiments, 1 to 5 cycles of the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS process are used to form a desired thickness of the inorganic material on the base material.

In some embodiments, the inorganic material formed on the base material and deposited on or infiltrating at least the portion of the base material includes a metal, a metal oxide, a metal nitride, a metal sulfide, metal chalcogenide, a metal carbide, a metal phosphide, or any combination thereof. For example, the inorganic material can include Al2O3, TiO2, ZnO, MgO, SiO2, HfO2, ZrO2, W or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the first metal precursor includes TMA and the second co-reactant precursor includes water or ozone. In such embodiments, the inorganic material coated on and infiltrating at least a portion of the base material includes Al2O3.

Expanding further, SIS is related to ALD. MLD is similar to ALD but instead of atoms being deposited layer by layer as in ALD, molecules are deposited layer by layer on the substrate. In general, the SIS process involves exposing a substrate (e.g., the base material) which can be formed from an organic material to various gas phase precursors (e.g., the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor) to synthesize the inorganic material, similar to ALD. However, contrary to ALD which only forms the inorganic material on a surface of the substrate, SIS coats the surface of the substrate but also infiltrates into the bulk substrate. This is achieved by adjusting the partial pressure and time of the gas phase precursor exposures (i.e., the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor).

In some embodiments, the SIS process may include relatively long periods of gas phase exposure and high partial pressure of the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor. For example, the SIS method may include a relatively long period of gas phase exposure and high partial pressure of the first metal precursor followed by a long period of exposure and high partial pressure of the second co-reactant precursor. In various embodiments, a purging step can be performed in-between exposure to the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor.

For example, the base material can be positioned in a hermetically sealed chamber pumped to vacuum. The base material is exposed to the first metal precursor for the first predetermined time (e.g., between 1 second and 500 seconds) and the first partial pressure (e.g., between 0.01 and 10 Torr). The chamber is then evacuated, and/or purged with an inert gas, for example nitrogen, argon, or any other inert gas before exposing the base material to the second co-reactant component. In another embodiment, the method may include a series of short pulses of the first metal precursor followed by another series of short pulses of the second co-reactant precursor. In some embodiments, a series of short pulses may be combined with long periods of gas phase exposure to the first metal precursor and/or the second co-reactant precursor.

In some embodiments, the total time of exposure to first metal precursor and/or the second co-reactant precursor during SIS cycle may be 5 to 1000 times higher and the partial pressures may be 5-10,000 larger than the typical time and partial pressure for an ALD cycle.

The first metal precursor infiltrates within the base material and selectively binds (either covalently or non-covalently) to a functional group of the base material, for example a carbonyl group. The second co-reactant precursor is selectively reactive with the first metal precursor that is bound to the base material. For example, the first reactive gas may be a ligated metal such as trimethyl aluminum (TMA) and the second reactive gas may be water. In some embodiments, a third precursor may be used.

The SIS process results in the growth of the inorganic material on the surface of the base material and also in a sub-surface region of the base material associated with the first metal precursor and the second co-reactant precursor used. In some embodiments, the inorganic material can form an inorganic layer that may have a thickness in the range of 0.2 nm to 5,000 nm. For example, the inorganic material can include aluminum oxide (Al2O3), which may be formed on the base material surface using TMA as the first metal precursor and water as the second co-reactant precursor. In other embodiments, the inorganic material can infiltrate the base material via SIS so as to infuse the base material polymer with the inorganic material (e.g. Al2O3) to a depth of 0.05 micron to 1,000 microns.

In some embodiments, the base material forming the foam includes polyurethane, having the chemical structure shown below:

During the first phase of the ALD or SIS process, the polyurethane is exposed to TMA as the first metal precursor which reacts with the carbonyl moieties in the polyurethane as shown by the following reaction:

During the second phase of the ALD, MLD, or SIS process, the second co-reactant precursor, for example water reacts with the first precursor coupled to the carbonyl bonds of the polyurethane to form Al₂O₃ on the polyurethane. The Al₂O₃ or any other inorganic material deposited on the base material serves as a linker for coupling of an oleophilic material thereto, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the first metal precursor (e.g., TMA) selectively binds with carbonyl and/or amine moieties present in the base substrate. In other embodiments, any other polymer component or reactive functional groups of the base material may be utilized for selective inorganic material. For example, the first metal precursor may be formulated to interact with various functional groups of the base material through various interactions, including metal-ligand coordination, covalent bonding, and other interactions. For example, in various embodiments the base material may include pyridine groups, which can be used to selectively bind various metal compounds including Al(CH₃)₃, AlCl₃, Zn(C₂H₅)₂, C(CH₃)₂, etc. which may be used as the first metal precursor. In some embodiments, the base material can include hydroxyl groups, which can react with various first metal precursors, including Al(CH₃)₃, TiCl₄, Zn(C₂H₅)₂, etc. to form covalent bonds.

Two components may be significant in driving the ALD, MLD, or SIS process to obtain particular characteristics of the inorganic material formed on the base material. The first component is the selective and self-limited reaction of the first metal precursor such as Al(CH₃)₃, TiCl₄, SnCl₄, AlCl₃, etc., which are Lewis acids in this example, and the second component is the second co-reactant precursor strategically selected functional moieties in the base material such as the carbonyl and/or amine groups in polyurethane. Once bound to the polymer, the grafted metal-ligands serve as nucleation sites for the second co-reactant precursor. Within each of these components, the reactions are controllable on the molecular level and the characteristic self-limited heterogeneous reactions provide macroscopic uniformity.

In various embodiments, the second co-reactant precursor may be an oxygen source (e.g., H2O, O2, O3, H2O2, etc.), a reducing agent (e.g., H2, hydrazine, Si2H6, etc.), or other compound reactive with the first metal precursor. The order of the precursors may be altered in various embodiments. For instance, in some embodiments the second co-reactant precursor (e.g., H2O, H2S) can be selected to react with or bind to a specific functional group in the base material and utilized first in the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS sequence, and the first metal precursor can be utilized next in the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS sequence so as to react with the adsorbed or bound second co-reactant precursor.

The inorganic material is functionalized with an oleophilic material at 106, thereby forming the oleophilic foam. The oleophilic material can include any material that has a high affinity for oils. In some embodiments, the oleophilic material can include a silane, for example, 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylmethacrylate, heptadecafluorodecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, tris(trimethylsiloxy)silylethyldimethylchlorosilane, octyldimethylchlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, butyldimethylchlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, nonafluorohexyltrimethoxysilane, vinyltriethoxysilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, propyltrimethoxysilane, trifluoropropyltrimethoxysilane, 3-(2-aminoethyl)-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, p-tolyltrimethoxysilane, cyanoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltriethoxysilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, chloropropyltrimethoxysilane, mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane, glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, acetoxyethyltris(dimethylamino)silane, n-decyltris(dimethylamino)silane, 7-octenyltrimethoxysilane, 7-octenylthrichlorosilane, γ-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, (3-glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl acrylate, isooctyl trimethoxysilane, butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, trimethoxy(7-octen-1-yl)silane, 3-(trichlorosilyl)propyl methacrylate, 2-(trichlorosilyl)ethyl acetate, (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane, any other silane, any other oleophilic material or any combination thereof.

The base material can be exposed to the oleophilic material using any suitable method. In some embodiments, the oleophilic material is deposited using a liquid phase method, for example by immersing the foam comprising the base material coated with the inorganic material in the liquid oleophilic material (e.g., a silane) or in a liquid solution of the oleophilic material dissolved in a solvent (e.g. ethanol). In some embodiments, the foam can be exposed to a vapor of the oleophilic material (e.g., a vapor of a volatile silane) or in a gaseous mixture containing the volatile silane (e.g., a gaseous mixture of an inert gas such as argon and a vapor of a volatile silane). For example, the foam coated with or infiltrated with the inorganic material can be functionalized with the oleophilic material using a single-step vapor phase process.

In some embodiments, an ALD process can be used to coat the foam with the oleophilic material. For example, the foam including the base material (e.g., polyurethane) coated with an inorganic material (e.g., Al2O3) is subjected to one or more ALD cycles comprised of an exposure to the oleophilic material (e.g., 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylmethacrylate) optionally followed by an exposure to a co-reactant (e.g. water). The oleophilic material, for example a silane, can covalently or non-covalently react with the inorganic material, for example a metal or metal oxide, so that the inorganic material is functionalized with the oleophilic material.

In this manner, an oleophilic foam having a high capacity and affinity for oils and low affinity for water is formed. FIG. 3A is an optical image of a block 300 of an oleophilic foam formed using an embodiment of the method 100. FIG. 3B is an enlarged schematic view of a portion of the block 300 showing a plurality of strands 310 of the oleophilic foam interwoven together or shaped to form the block 300 of the oleophilic foam. FIG. 3C shows an enlarged cross-section schematic view of a single strand 310 of the plurality of strands 310 forming the block 300 of the oleophilic foam.

As shown in FIG. 3C, each strand 310 of the oleophilic foam includes a base material 312 (e.g., polyurethane or any other base material described herein). The base material 312 is coated with an inorganic material 314 (e.g., Al2O3 or any other inorganic material described herein) using the ALD or SIS process described with respect to the method 100 such that the inorganic material deposits on or infiltrates at least a portion of the base material 312 (e.g., infiltrates 0.01 to 1000 microns into the surface of the base material). The inorganic material is functionalized with the oleophilic material (e.g., a silane) rendering the block of foam highly oleophilic as well as hydrophobic.

In various embodiments, the block 300 of oleophilic foam provides 45× w/w oil absorption or even higher. Furthermore, the oil absorption properties of the block 300 of the oleophilic foam can be 10× higher than carbon foams. The block 300 of the oleophilic foam 300 is non-toxic and therefore can be used without significant health concerns to the personnel deploying the foam, the environment or the marine life.

While the oleophilic foam 300 is generally described as being used for mitigating oil spills the oleophilic foam 300 can be used for any other purpose or use. For example, the oleophilic foam can be used as a filter for removing oils or other oily materials from a fluid over extended periods of time (e.g., as filter for removing oil in water supplies, filtering lipids from biological samples, etc.).

FIG. 2 is a schematic flow diagram of an embodiment of a method 200 for cleaning and recovering oil from oil spills located on or beneath the surface of a water body, for example an ocean, a lake or a river. The method 200 includes providing an oleophilic foam at 202. The oleophilic foam comprises a base material, for example polyurethane or any other base material described herein. The base material is coated with an inorganic material, for example Al2O3 or any other inorganic material described herein which is deposited on or infiltrates the base material. The inorganic material can be coated on the base material using the ALD, MLD, and/or SIS process described herein and using any first metal precursor (e.g., TMA) and second co-reactant precursor (e.g., water) as described in detail with respect to the method 100. The inorganic material is functionalized with an oleophilic material, for example a silane or any other oleophilic material described in detail herein.

In some embodiments, the oleophilic foam can be integrated with a net at 204. For example, a plurality of strands of the oleophilic foam can be interwoven to form a net (e.g., the net 350 formed from a plurality of strands of the oleophilic foam 300 as shown in FIG. 4). In some embodiments, the foam may be enclosed within mesh bags or other porous containers and attached to a net. In some embodiments, pieces of the foam may be attached to a net.

The oleophilic foam is lowered into a depth in the water body corresponding to a location of the oil spill at 206. For example, the net functionalized with strands of the oleophilic foam can be lowered to the depth corresponding to the location of the oil spill. In some embodiments in which the oil spill is a surface oil spill, the oleophilic foam can be shaped into a block or pad. In such embodiments, the block or pad of the oleophilic foam is positioned on the surface of the water body.

The oleophilic foam is dragged through the oil spill at 208 (or the water current carries the oil past and through the foam). For example, the net formed from the strands of the oleophilic foam is dragged through the submerged oil spill or the block of the oleophilic foam is dragged through the surface oil spill. The oleophilic material included in the oleophilic foam causes the oleophilic foam to reversibly absorb the oil.

In some embodiments, the oleophilic foam is compressed so as to remove the oil absorbed in the oleophilic foam so that the oleophilic foam is reusable thereafter 210. For example, once net or block of the oleophilic foam has absorbed oil to its capacity, the net or block of the foam is removed from the water body and squeezed (e.g., between rollers) to remove the oil absorbed by the oleophilic foam. The removed oil can be collected and used or disposed of in an environmentally benign fashion.

FIG. 4 shows illustrations of a system for removing oil from a water body using an oleophilic foam. A net 350 formed from an oleophilic foam or having oleophilic foam coupled thereto is attached (e.g., suspended) from a marine vehicle 10, for example, a ship or a trawler. The net 350 includes a plurality of strands of the oleophilic foam 300, as described herein. The strands of the oleophilic foam 300 can be secured between a plurality of second strands 352 of a strong, rigid and corrosion resistant material. For example, the plurality of second strands 352 can be formed from nylon, Kevlar, carbon fiber, or a metal such as stainless steel, aluminum, any other suitable material or a combination thereof. The net 350 is immersed to a depth corresponding to a location of the oil spill. The net 350 is dragged through the oil spill by the marine vehicle 10 such that the net 350 absorbs the oil. Once the net 350 has absorbed the oil to capacity, the net 350 is drawn out of the ocean. The net 350 can be then be squeezed, for example between rollers to draw out and collect the oil.

While foam functionalized for interacting with oil is described above, in one embodiment, a foam is functionalized to interact with a specific class, group, or type of material, such as through chemical interactions.

Foam for Oil-Water Separation Associated with Oil Desalting

Desalting is usually the first process in crude oil refining. Common salts in crude oil include calcium, sodium, and magnesium chlorides, which must be removed prior to subsequent refining. High temperatures in downstream processing would hydrolyze water, forming corrosive acids with these salts. Salts also form deposits in pipelines and vessels, and many of these materials can also poison catalysts. Crude is typically mixed with a water stream (−5%) and heated to 120-150° C. forming an emulsion, and the water extracts the salts from the oil. A static electric field desalter is usually used to separate the crude from the water. This process consumes a significant amount of energy. The foam invention mitigates this energy investment.

Crude oil is often mixed with salts that were present in the deposits underground, and this salt must be removed from the oil prior to subsequent processing. Salt is typically removed via washing with water, and currently the approach is typically to wait for the oil and water to spontaneously separate by density and then skim the oil from the processing tank. One embodiment entails using a foam (e.g. polyurethane) with tailored surface functionalization achieved using SIS in combination with subsequent treatment to effectively separate crude oil from the saline water.

Oil Desalting Targeted material(s) Affinity chemistry Crude oil components Type: dipole-dipole; TT-TT; hydrophobic effect • Paraffins Classes: carbonyl, ester; aromatic rings; alkanes, e.g.: alkenes, alkynes

Type: dipole-dipole; TT-TT, hydrophobic effect Classes: carbonyl, ester; aromatic rings; alkanes • Aromatics alkenes, alkynes e.g.: Examples agents:

• Cycloalkanes e.g.:

Ester type: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl metacrylate

• Alkenes e.g.:

ACETOXYETHYL TRICHLOROSILANE

• Alkynes e.g.: H—C≡C—H • H—S, phenols, ketones, etc. 3-ACETOXYPROPYL TRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Benzene-type: BENZYLTRICHLOROSILANE

Olive oil and related oils (Same as oil desalting)

Foam Treatment of Flowback and Produced Water from Hydraulic Fracturing

In hydraulic fracturing operations, fluids are injected into subsurface deposits to crack shale and release fossil fuels, which then are driven to the surface. These fossil fuels emerge mixed with substantial quantities of water (a combination of fracking fluid, or flowback water, and water that was present with fossil fuels in the deposit, or produced water). This water is contaminated with many chemicals that render it an environmental hazard and an enormous economic burden on energy companies. Hydrocarbons in the water are a particular challenge to mitigate. Another source of contamination present may be heavy metals or environmentally detrimental rare earth elements. For example, mercury, lead, arsenic, and radionuclides are associated with fracking operations. A foam may be functionalized to interact with and remove such contaminates by binding with the contaminant

Water costs are a major contributor to the overall cost of hydraulic fracturing. Many pollutants present in flowback and produced water render the water unsuitable for reuse and result in it being treated essentially as (expensive) toxic waste.

One approach to mitigate water pollutants in this industry is diluting with additional water to meet regulatory limits. Since hydraulic fracturing operations are often located in water-scarce regions, this approach can be prohibitively expensive or even entirely impractical. Filtration can remove many of the contaminants, but this is ineffective with hydrocarbons. The most common method used today to remove hydrocarbons from flowback/produced water is skimming. A gravity separator or “heater treater” unit aims to separate oil and other hydrocarbons to the surface, which are then mechanically skimmed off. This approach is only partially effective, and is generally slow and expensive. The approach outlined in this invention would be low cost, rapid, and likely more effective-especially at removing dissolved hydrocarbons.

Targeted materials(s) Affinity chemistry Fracking Water Hydrocarbons (similar to oil) (Same as oil desalting) Heavy metals (mercury, lead, Chelation-type binding arsenic, radionuclides, etc.)

Chemically Tailored Foams for Water Contamination Remediation

This invention comprises a way to mitigate the detrimental impact of mixed contaminants of concern (COCs) in water, including groundwater associated with common DoD commingled plumes by selectively extracting COCs from water using a simple, low-cost methodology based on polymer foams with tailored surface chemistry. The water contamination may be ground water, aquifers, standing water, surface water, reservoirs, or any other water source, whether within a porous material such as the ground or as a continuous body of water. The extracted chemicals can then be disposed, stored, or degraded as with typical hazardous chemical waste, and the tailored foams can be reused. Our approach specifically targets blends of organic COCs in hydrogeologic settings. These include: chlorinated and non-chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1,4-dioxane, perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs), and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NOMA). Contaminated groundwater with a mixture of chemical species, as is often the situation at DoD sites with low water mobility, represents a daunting remediation challenge. Often the strategy is to apply multiple treatment methods to tackle the various physicochemical properties of the COCs in the field within the context of the relevant regulatory framework, with degradation being the most common tactic. Treatment of large volumes of contaminated water in this manner is generally both ineffective and expensive, in part due to the massive volume of water requiring treatment. Here we propose an alternative, novel strategy. The goal is to selectively remove the COCs from the water using customized absorbents for easy recovery and disposal. Commercial polyurethane (PU) foam serves as the platform for this technology. Although PU does not have an inherent chemical affinity for the targeted compounds, we can tailor the affinity with substantial flexibility using surface modification technologies developed in our laboratory. In this manner, we can extract a broad spectrum of chemicals out of the water, including complex mixtures. Not only will the remaining groundwater achieve regulatory compliance, but the extracted chemicals will be highly concentrated, rendering them far easier to dispose.

Our technology overcomes many of the limitation of conventional absorbents. Commonly employed absorbent materials include hydrophobic silica aerogels, zeolites, organoclays, and carbonaceous materials. Desirable properties are a high affinity and selectivity for the targeted compound, high uptake capacity and rate, retention and recoverability, reusability, and low cost. Inorganic mineral materials such as aerogels and zeolites can provide high and selective absorption, but are generally not reusable and do not enable chemical recovery, prohibiting large scale use in the field. Activated carbon and graphite can only absorb small quantities of chemicals. Shifting to advanced carbon materials such as nanotubes or graphene provides higher absorption but only at a severe economic cost. Beyond limited absorption and cost, carbon foams can rarely be reused, and the absorbed materials is difficult to separate from the foam. Organic vegetable products such as straw, cotton fiber, and peat moss are advantageous in that they are natural products, but they suffer from poor buoyancy and, as with all existing options, low selectivity and absorption. Here we propose an approach based on low-cost materials and processing that will produce reusable absorbents with high selectivity and absorption capacity/speed. The starting material is commercial PU foam, which is manufactured on extremely large scales at low cost and has no health or instability hazards associated with it. Rather than implementing the foam directly off-the-shelf in groundwater remediation, these foams will undergo surface functionalization using a combination of two simple techniques to render them highly chemophilic for COCs. It is anticipated that the resulting foams will exhibit high capacity while at the same time being continuously reusable and allowing straightforward recoverability of the collected pollutants. Deployment of the absorbent foam will be accomplished by one of two methodologies. The first would involve incorporating strands of the foam into large-area nylon nets. The net will be lowered to the depth of the contamination plume and then extracted from the water where the COCs will be recovered using compression rollers. A second methodology would entail pumping the contaminated groundwater to the surface, processing it with the tailored foam(s), and returning the treated water to the subsurface basin. In the case of many DoD COCs, foams will be prepared with alternative chemistries such as polar or fluorinated moieties to absorb chlorinated species/dioxane and PFCs, respectively.

Groundwater Contamination Remediation Targeted material(s) Affinity Remediation 1,4-dioxane

Type: dipole-dipole; hydrogen bonding Classes: carbonyl, ester; alcohols Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYL TRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYL TRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYL TRIMETHOXYSILANE

Chlorinated VOCs

Type: halogen bonding Classes: weak carboxxylic acids Example agents: CHLOROMETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-CHLOROPROPYLTRICHLOROSILANE

CHLOROMETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

3-CHLOROPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Non-chlorinated VOCs

Type: dipole-dipole Classes: carbonyl, ester Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Example agents: DICHLOROPHENYLTRICHLOROSILANE

CHLOROPHENYLTRICHLOROSILANE

p-CHLOROPHENYLTRIETHOXYSILANE

Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs)

Example agents: NONAFLUOROHEXYLTRICHLOROSILANE

DODECAFLUORODEC-9-ENE-1- YLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)

Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl meethacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Metal cations Type: cation-TT, chelation e.g.: Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, U⁶⁺ Classes: aromatic rings, thiols Example agents: BENZYLTRICHLOROSILANE

(DIPHENYLMETHYL)TRICHLOROSILANE

(DIPHENYLMETHYL)TRIMETHOXYSILANE

(3-Mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane

Foam for Separation of Algal Biofuel Products

Biofuel production from sugar and lignin streams results in impurities from native feedstocks and contaminants from feedstock processing such as inhibitory oligomers, lignin-derived aromatics, aliphatic acids, and sugar dehydration products. During sugar or lignin upgrading, inhibitors produced in fermentation (alcohols, acids, etc.) are also a challenge. Separation of these chemicals from desirable materials in the broth is desirable. This invention entails using a foam with tailored surface chemistry to selectively absorb the target materials as a biocatalytic reactor-integratable technology.

Feedstocks for biofuels contain a variety of impurities: fatty acids, glycerol, pigments, aliphatic aldehydes and ketones, waxes, and phosphatides. Before the feedstock can be converted to biofuel, the contaminants must be removed. Additional impurities are created during the transesterification process of biofuel production. Impurities negatively impact the storage life and performance of biofuels.

Hydratable phospholipids are usually removed by a process called water degumming, which involves heating (60-70° C.) and addition of water (−2%) followed by mixing. The water absorbs the hydratable compounds, and centrifugation is used to separate the water from the desirable compounds. Nonhydratable materials are much more challenging to remove. The foam technology described here can target specific, challenging impurities and remove them in a rapid, cost-effective manner with a reusable absorbent.

Biofuel Targeted material(s) Affinity chemistry Lignin-derived aromatics Type: dipole-dipole; TT-TT e.g. Classes: carbonyl; aromatic rings

1: p-cumeryl alcohol

2: coniferyl alcohol

3: anirgyl alcohol 4-ACETOXYPHENETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-(p-METHOXYPHENYL) PROPYLTRICHLOROSILANE

4: p-coumeric alcohol

5: fenalic acid

6: sinopic acid p-METHOXYPHENYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

7: 4-vinyl phenol

8: 4-vinyl methanol

9: 4-vinyl aryngol

10: vanillin

11: syrngaldehyde

12: protocestobactic acid

13: o-hydroxybenzoic acid

14: venadryl alcohol Aliphatic acids (Same as food oils) Aliphatic aldehydes

Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Alcohols and glycerol

Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Pigments

Example agents: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Phosphatides

Example agents: 2-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY(ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Waxes

Type: hydrophobic effect Classes: alkanes (straight and branched) Example agents:

HEXYLTRICHLOROSILANE

DODECYLTRICHLOROSILANE

HEXYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

DODECYL TRIMETHOXYSILANE

Foams for Cosmetics

One embodiment relates to oil-absorbing cosmetic sorbents. Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans, is primarily composed of triglycerides (−41%), wax esters (−26%), squalene (−12%), and free fatty acids (−16%). For those with oily skin, most existing oil control products never seem to work. Cosmetic powders that mattify one's face slide off in hours, and oil blotting sheets are only partially effective and can only be used once. One embodiment entails modifying a non-toxic foam pad with surface chemistry to target absorption of the constituents of sebum. Zinc oxide would serve as the initial foam treatment, as this material is already used in cosmetic products such as sunscreens. Subsequent functionalization would coat the ZnO with moieties exhibiting selective absorption of sebum.

Another embodiment relates to foams functionalized for a particular cosmetic product, to hold the cosmetic in place (on/within the foam) until used. That is, the foam would be “preloaded” with a cosmetic for which it has an affinity.

For cosmetic applications, one embodiment has a thin film or small block form factor.

Cosmetics Targeted material(s) Affinity chemistry Triglycerides

Type: dipole-dipole; hydrophobic effect Classes: carbonyl, ester; alkanes, alkenes alkynes Example agents: Ester-type: 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate

ACETOXYETHYLTRICHLOROSILANE

3-ACETOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

2- (CARBOMETHOXY)ETHYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Benzene-type: BENZYLTRICHLOROSILANE

(DIPHENYLMETHYL)TRICHLOROSILANE

(DIPHENYLMETHYL)TRIMETHOXYSILANE

Alkane type: HEXYLTRICHLOROSILANE

DODECYLTRICHLOROSILANE

HEXYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

DODECYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Alkene type: ALLYLTRICHLOROSILANE

5-HEXENYLTRICHLOROSILANE

ALLYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

5-HEXENYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Wax esters

(Same as triglycerides) Squalene

Type: hydrophobic effect Classes: alkenes Example agents: ALLYLTRICHLOROSILANE

5-HEXENYLTRICHLOROSILANE

ALLYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

5-HEXENYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE

Fatty acids (Same as food oils)

The following section provides various examples of the oil absorbing capabilities of various oleophilic foams formed using the methods described herein. These examples are for illustration purposes only and are not intended to limit the disclosure.

EXAMPLES

FIG. 5A-C is an image of a beaker containing water with dyed oil floating thereon. An oleophilic foam which includes a pad of polyurethane foam coated with Al₂O₃ using an SIS process and functionalized with 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylmethacrylate, according to the methods described herein is immersed in the water. FIG. 5B is an image of the beaker of water of FIG. 5A after immersing the oleophilic foam therein. The oleophilic foam absorbs all the oil within 5 seconds. FIG. 5C is an image of the beaker of FIG. 5A after all the oil has been absorbed by the oleophilic foam leaving substantially clean water in the beaker.

FIG. 6 is a bar chart of oil absorption capabilities of three oleophilic foams Foam A, Foam B and Foam C relative to an untreated foam. Each of the untreated foam, and Foams A, B and C include a polyurethane foam and have the same size and mass. Each of the Foams A, B and C are formed using the SIS process described herein such that the Foam C is functionalized with the highest amount of oleophilic material, followed by Foam B and Foam A. As seen in FIG. 6, the untreated foam absorbs about 4,000 grams oil within a predetermined time. In contrast, Foam A absorbs about 9,000 grams, Foam B absorbs about 11,000 grams and Foam C absorbs about 13,000 grams of the oil within the same predetermined time.

Transport System

In another embodiment, best shown in FIG. 7, a transport system 700 maybe utilized in conjunction with a functionalized foam 710 The functionalized foam may interact with, for example, an oil spill, or other material for which the foam is functionalized. The transport system 700 moves functionalized foam to interact with the material 720, collecting a portion 725 of the material 720 on the foam 710, and then transports the foam 710 and portion 725 away from the material 720. In one embodiment, the foam 710 is then engaged by an extraction mechanism 740, for example illustrated as a compression extraction mechanism, to extract at least some of the portion 725 of material 720 on the functionalized foam 710, such as for collection in a vessel 745. This, effectively, frees the foam 710 to again engage the material 720 and extract. The transport system and foam may provide a continuous operating system such as where the foam is provided as a continuous band that travels along a path engaging with the material 720 at one point and with the compression mechanism 740 at another point.

In an alternative embodiment, the transport system 700 utilizes one or more extraction systems 740, which may include a chemical solvent or solution-based system, a mechanical agitation system, such as ultrasonic vibrations or an air knife, a thermal system such as hot air, or reaction based such as release activated by pH or light.

The transport system 700 utilizes relative movement of the foam 710 to the treated liquid. For example, the transport system may be placed in a flowing stream of liquids, the transport system 700 may move the foam 710 in relatively still liquid or both the foam 710 and the liquid environment may be moving.

The transport system 700 may utilize a plurality of functionalized foams 710 targeted to different materials, for example heavy metal targeted foam and hydrocarbon targeted foam in an environment with fracking run-off or pollution.

In one embodiment, the transport system 700 may utilize a net or other form factor for the foam 710 as discussed previously.

In one embodiment, the foam has a high surface area to volume ratio. Submersion of such in the environment allows the liquid environment to permeate the foam and extraction of the targeted materials to take place over a time period. Thus, the foam may be left in the environment, rather than continuously moved relative to the environment, in one embodiment.

As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, the term “a member” is intended to mean a single member or a combination of members, “a material” is intended to mean one or more materials, or a combination thereof.

As used herein, the terms “about” and “approximately” generally mean plus or minus 10% of the stated value. For example, about 0.5 would include 0.45 and 0.55, about 10 would include 9 to 11, about 1000 would include 900 to 1100.

It should be noted that the term “exemplary” as used herein to describe various embodiments is intended to indicate that such embodiments are possible examples, representations, and/or illustrations of possible embodiments (and such term is not intended to connote that such embodiments are necessarily extraordinary or superlative examples).

The terms “coupled,” and the like as used herein mean the joining of two members directly or indirectly to one another. Such joining may be stationary (e.g., permanent) or moveable (e.g., removable or releasable). Such joining may be achieved with the two members or the two members and any additional intermediate members being integrally formed as a single unitary body with one another or with the two members or the two members and any additional intermediate members being attached to one another.

It is important to note that the construction and arrangement of the various exemplary embodiments are illustrative only. Although only a few embodiments have been described in detail in this disclosure, those skilled in the art who review this disclosure will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible (e.g., variations in sizes, dimensions, structures, shapes and proportions of the various elements, values of parameters, mounting arrangements, use of materials, colors, orientations, etc.) without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the subject matter described herein. Other substitutions, modifications, changes and omissions may also be made in the design, operating conditions and arrangement of the various exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

While this specification contains many specific implementation details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any embodiments or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular implementations of particular embodiments. Certain features described in this specification in the context of separate implementations can also be implemented in combination in a single implementation. Conversely, various features described in the context of a single implementation can also be implemented in multiple implementations separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

Thus, particular implementations of the disclosure have been described. Other implementations are within the scope of the following claims. In some cases, the actions recited in the claims can be performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results. In addition, the processes depicted in the accompanying figures do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In certain implementations, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising; providing a foam comprising a plurality of strands of a base material interconnected to form the foam such that the foam comprises a skeleton formed by the plurality of strands, the skeleton forming a porous region between the plurality of strands; infiltrating the plurality of strands of the base material within a depth of 0.05 micron to 1,000 microns with an inorganic material using sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS) process, the SIS process including at least one cycle of: exposing the foam to a first metal precursor for a first predetermined time and a first partial pressure, the first metal precursor infiltrating below a surface of each of the plurality of strands forming the skeleton up to the depth and binding with the base material, and exposing the foam to a second co-reactant precursor for a second predetermined time and a second partial pressure, the second co-reactant precursor reacting with the first metal precursor, within the base material, thereby forming the inorganic material within the base material up to the depth within the plurality of strands forming the skeleton; and functionalizing the inorganic material with a material, creating a functionalized foam having a selected affinity.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the base material includes at least one of polyurethanes, polyimides, acrylics, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, or polyaramides.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the first metal precursor comprises at least one of Trimethyl Aluminum (TMA), triethyl aluminum (TEA), Yttrium Tris(2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-3,5-Heptanedionate) (Y(thd)₃), Diethyl Zinc (DEZ), Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄), Vanadium (V) Oxytriisopropoxide (VOTP), Palladium (II) hexafluoroacetylacetonate, (Pd(hfac)₂), copper bis(2,2, 6, 6-tetramethy 1-3, 5-heptanedionate) (Cu(thd)₂), copper(II) hexafluoroacetylacetonate hydrate (Cu(hfac)₂), iron tris(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionate) (Fe(thd)₃), cobalt tris(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionate) (Co(thd)₃), Bis(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionato)barium triglyme adduct (Ba(thd)₂), Bis(cyclopentadienyl) ruthenium (Ru(cp)₂), di silane (Si₂H₆), Tungsten Hexafluoride (WF₆), Bi s(N,N′diisopropylacetamidinato) copper(I) (Cu(DIA)), Nickel (II) acetylacetonate (Ni(acac)₂), antimony pentachloride (SbCl₅), niobium pentachloride (NbCl₅), niobium pentethoxide (Nb(OEt)₅), titanium isopropoxide (Ti(iOPr)₄), tris(tetramethylcyclopentadienyl) cerium (III), cyclopentadienyl indium (InCp), tris(i-propylcyclopentadienyl) lanthanum (La (iPrCp)₃), bis(cyclopentadienyl) magnesium (Mg(Cp)₂), bis (cyclopentadienyl) nickel (NiCp₂), (trimethyl)methylcyclopentadienylplatinum (IV) (Pt(MeCp)Me₃), bis (pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) strontium (Sr(Me₅Cp)₂), tris (cyclopentadienyl) yttrium (YCp₃), bis(cyclopentadienyl) la dimethylzirconium (ZrCp₂Me₂), bis(methylcyclopentadienyl) methoxymethyl zirconium (ZrOMe), tetrakis(dimethylamino) tin (TDMASn), tetrakis(dimethylamino) zirconium (TDMAZr), tris(dimethylamino) aluminum (TDMAAl), iridium(III) acetylacetonate (Ir(acac)₃), niobium pentafluoride (NbF₅), ferrocene (FeCp₂), cyclohexadiene iron tricarbonyl (FeHD(CO)₃), tetrakis(dimethylamino) antimony (TDMASb), aluminum trichloride (AlCl₃), niobium (V) iodide (NbI₅), tin (IV) iodide (SnI₄), Tris(tetramethylcyclopentadienyl) gadolinium(III) (Gd(Me4Cp)₃), Bis(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) barium 1,2-dimethoxyethane adduct (Ba (Me₅Cp)-2-DMA), Molybdenum Hexafluoride (MoF₆), Tris (tert-pentoxy)silanol (TTPSi), silicon tetrachloride (SiCl₄), lithium tert-butoxide (Li(tOBu)), trimethyl indium (TMin),trimethyl gallium (TMGa), and dimethyl cadmium (TMCd).
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the second co-reactant precursor comprises at least one of water, hydrogen peroxide, nitrous oxide, oxygen, ozone, hydrogen, formaldehyde, trimethyl aluminum, ammonia, hydrazine, dimethyl hydrazine, diethyl hydrazine, methyl-ethyl hydrazine, hydrogen sulfide, trimethyl phosphite, trimethyl phosphate, silane, and disilane.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the inorganic material includes at least one of a metal, a metal oxide, a metal nitride, a metal sulfide, metal chalcogenide, a metal carbide or a metal phosphide.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the inorganic material includes at least one of Al₂O₃, TiO₂, ZnO, MgO, SiO₂, HfO₂, ZrO₂, and W.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the functionalizing is performed using atomic layer deposition.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the functionalizing is performed using a single-step vapor phase process.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the functionalizing is performed using a liquid-phase functionalization process.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the inorganic material has a thickness of 0.2 nm to 5,000 nm.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the first predetermined time is 1-10 seconds.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the first partial pressure is 0.1 to 1 Torr.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one cycle comprises 1 to 5 cycles of SIS.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the inorganic material has a thickness of greater than 500 nm and up to 5,000 nm. 